A Research On Positive Accounting Theory - 2273 Words

positive accounting hypothesis (PAT) estimates that, in flawed markets, accounting decision may be controlled by directors looking to impact reported income and capital structure (Watts and Zimmerman, 1978). Specifically, the positive accounting hypothesis (PAT) contends that accounting decisions are liable to be spurred by components, for example, supervisors extra arranges, the company s obligation/value proportions and the more extensive political impact of outsiders (Watts and Zimmerman, 1978; 1986). The primary goal of this critique is to clarify how administration accounting created and the reasons that have been propelled in scholastic writing to bolster this improvement. Since the field is so expansive, we decided to study†¦show more content†¦Notwithstanding, despite the fact that the all the more pessimistically minded would truly subscribe to this perspective, there has been an extremely emotional upturn in an enthusiasm for moral contemplations by business pioneers and expert business associations part of the way as a consequence of the requests of social orders which have needed to tolerate the expense of tremendous corporate breakdown and the deceitful business exercises of a minority of business experts. Actually the subject has turned into an industry with a few books on it being distributed, a few courses, courses, workshops and addresses gave to the subject, various models declared furthermore, an always expanding number of remarks and verbal confrontations in people in general media †¢ Positive Accounting Theory (PAT) concerned with predicting such actions as the choices of accounting policies by firms how firms will respond to proposed new accounting standard. †¢ PAT uses theory to predict the choices that management will make regarding their choice of accounting policies. †¢ This theory is introduced as a way to merge efficient securities markets with economic consequences †¢ PAT takes the view that firms will conduct themselves in the way that maximizes their own best interests. †¢ Managers do not always do what is best for shareholders, but what will be the most beneficial to their organization. †¢ The choices that an organization makes are dependent on

Essay about Hipaa Violation - 1541 Words

Course Project Rough Draft MGH HIPAA violation case Jennifer Brummage Medical Law and Ethics In the health care business, there are certain standards and laws that have been put in place to protect our patients and their personal health information. When a health care facility fails to protect their patient’s confidential information, the US Government may get involved and facilities may be forced to pay huge sums of money in fines, and risk damaging their reputation. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) was established in 1996. This Act was put into place in order to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the health care system. The HIPAA law includes a Privacy†¦show more content†¦According to the complaint that was filed, the employee had removed the folder containing the documents from her bag and placed them in the seat beside her. The documents were not in an envelope and they were bound only by a rubber band. Upon exiting the train, the MGH employee left the documents on the subway train. The documents were never recovered. This incident was later reported to the Office of Civil rights (OCR) by a patient who was informed by the hospital that his medical records had been lost by an employee and left them on a subway train. The One hundred and ninety two patients involved had been patients of the hospitals Infectious Disease outpatient practice, which includes HIV/AIDS patients. The fact that the patients involved in this case were potentially AIDS patients, made the violation that much more serious. Investigators had to take in to account that these people had their medical records lost, and in those records were their phone numbers and addresses and possibly their place of employment. If these documents fell into the wrong hands, the potential for destroying the patients’ lives was very high. Had a person with malicious intent got ahold of their information, they could have harassed the patient and possibly spread their personal information around, which could have had devastating consequences. The Office of Civil Rights began their investigation of Massachusetts General following theShow MoreRelatedHipaa Violation and Prevention1042 Words   |  5 PagesHIPAA Violation and Prevention Many healthcare professionals and organizations have not been following the regulations set forth by HIPAA. Whenever violations of HIPAA’s privacy or security laws occur the organizations responsible must be held accountable resulting in a fine or penalty. Penalties provide incentive for organizations to guarantee patient privacy and security. Recently, certain people have failed to follow through with the laws and restrictions and were forced to accept the penaltyRead MoreHipaa Violations And The Privacy Rule1002 Words   |  5 Pages HIPAA Violations Although HIPAA (Health insurance portability and accountability) is a standard for health care providers nationwide, there are rare instances in which HIPAA is violated. There are a number of ways HIPAA can be violated. HIPPA’s Privacy Rule applies only to covered entities – health plans, health care clearinghouses, and certain health care providers. The rule requires covered entities to obtain satisfactory assurance, in writing, form its business associate that the associateRead MoreHipaa Violations Within The United States1166 Words   |  5 PagesDuring this research, there has been a collection of data that had been connected to the instances of HIPAA violations within the United States. There are various cases that have been reported through patients and employees where very personal medical information has been exposed unlawfully for personal gain. These cases have not only put a company at reputational risk. But these cases can also place a patient and or hea lthcare company in a terrible financial stipulation. This thesis will includeRead MoreHIPAA Minimum Necessary Standard Violations566 Words   |  2 PagesNecessary Standard The HIPAA Rules require that when a HIPAA covered entity a provider, a plan, a clearinghouse or a business associate of a covered entity uses or discloses PHI, or when it requests PHI from another covered entity or business associate, the covered entity or business associate must make reasonable efforts to limit PHI to the minimum necessary to accomplish the intended purpose of the use, disclosure, or request. (Duane Morris LLP , 2013) Under the HIPAA Rules, covered entitiesRead MoreCivil Money Penalty For Hipaa Privacy Rule Violations Essay1639 Words   |  7 PagesMoney Penalty HHS Imposes a $4.3 Million Civil Money Penalty for HIPAA Privacy Rule Violations Summary of the case (introduction) Upon hearing the case on several violated privacy rules of HIPAA Act of 1996 by Cignet Health of Prince George’s County, MD (Cignet), the HHS Office for Civil Rights (OCR) found the accused guilty of breach of privacy. A civil money penalty (CMP) of $4.3 million was imposed on the company due to the violations identified by the Office of Civil Rights. This civil money penaltyRead MoreHow Hipaa Violations Affect the Medical Billing Process1574 Words   |  7 PagesRunning head: HOW HIPAA VIOLATIONS AFFECT THE MEDICAL BILLING How HIPAA Violations Affect the Medical Billing Process Brenda Beaver Axia Of UOP How HIPAA Violations Affect the Medical Billing Process HIPAA confidentiality is important for very patient but for some reasons when they hear someone has HIV or AIDS it gives them the right to talk about it with others which have no reason to know. I will show why it is so important to be sensitive to this type of health conditions. Will examineRead MoreHow Hipaa Violations Affect the Medical Billing Process1652 Words   |  7 PagesHow HIPAA Violations Affect The Medical Billing Process HCR/220 September 23. 2012 How HIPAA Violations Affect The Medical Billing Process HIV and AIDS are two very serious diseases which first came known and reported in the U.S. in 1981. Today it is estimated that 1.7 million people in the U.S. have been infected with HIV since that date 619,000 people have already died from it. The CDC, (Center For Disease Control) estimates that every one in five people living with HIV, are unaware thatRead MoreHealth Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) Privacy Rule Violations 1239 Words   |  5 Pagesfriend tells him to contact his medical malpractice insurance carrier. Has there been a HIPAA violation? Is Dr. Williams subject to criminal prosecution and what penalties could he face? Understanding HIPAA regulations, federal and state laws and violations, then applying them to Dr. Williams’ case provides the answers. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 Enactment of HIPAA guaranteed health insurance coverage portability and directing the Department of Health andRead MoreHealth Insurance Portability And Accountability Act1253 Words   |  6 PagesInsurance Portability and Accountability Act, or for short â€Å"HIPAA†. Not only does HIPAA regulate the protection of patient’s health information, but they work to reduce healthcare fraud and abuse, mandate standards for healthcare electronic billing and services, and they provide the ability to transfer health coverage when workers or their families change or lose their job (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, 2014). If HIPAA were inactive, a patient’s health care information could beRead MoreHipaa Privacy Rule : Breach Of Privacy1253 Words   |  6 PagesHIPAA Privacy Rule: Breach of Privacy While HIPAA violation are sometimes unintentional, it should be taken seriously because it is a violation of patient privacy, it can cause a lifetime of embarrassment harm to one’s reputation, and individuals/entities can be fined and jailed for their offense. Regardless, if it is at work or home healthcare professionals should practice legal and ethical behaviors so that they can avoid HIPAA violation. As stated by Flite Harman (2013), â€Å"Too long a coffee

Lady Macbeth Sit Free Essays

Macbeth is walking and talking with friends at the party, and one of Machete’s rinds mention my name. You can see the guilt and discomfort approach his face. If only he could see my face right now. We will write a custom essay sample on Lady Macbeth Sit or any similar topic only for you Order Now When everyone is away I will make sure he gets to see my face one last time! Will make his life so horrible he is going to regret the thought of trying to kill me and my children. Macbeth is luckily distracted by his evil deceiving and conniving wife Lady Macbeth. What Macbeth doesn’t know is that I am watching his every move. And waiting for the perfect time to surprise him! I’m so angered and pained that I m not here on this earth anymore to take care of my children. And to see my children approaching the castle for Macbeth coordination party. I am only curious and confused as to why they would want to attend Machete’s party. I can see my children strolling and pacing the castle as if they are planning something. I have to see what my children are up to before they hurt their selves, someone else or hurt Macbeth. My plan is to distract Macbeth by showing him ghost face and getting my children out of this castle before Macbeth gets a chance to see them. Macbeth is having a nice conversation with his wife in a separate room and I figured this is the perfect time to surprise them. My first plan of action is to scare them by making noises next I want to fluster them. As I approach the room, and whisper Macbeth, Lady Macbeth. The expression on their face is priceless. I can hear Macbeth say what is that, who goes there. He has no clue that is me. And for my finale I will make my appearance. Hi Lady Macbeth and Macbeth. What a wonderful coordination dinner you have here. Banquet is thou? Yes am he Banquet ghost, here to ruin your lives like you ruined mine. Lady Macbeth we have to get out of here now. Oh no there is no way of escaping this. You and your wife will not be able to get away with this. You and Lady Macbeth caused pain and suffering to so many people that now you all must suffer. And for the ultimate finale, finish off Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. Before I could even finish them off my children come storming through the room ready to finish what I started. Startled and surprised to see my ghost, they say in unison â€Å"this is for you dad†. How to cite Lady Macbeth Sit, Papers

Macbeth Evil Question free essay sample

In Macbeth, Shakespeare wished to create a dark and evil world inhabited by malevolent characters who performed dastardly deeds upon one another. The particular use of language, imagery and pathetic fallacy, to an enormous extent, assisted in the creation of a powerfully evil, violent atmosphere which permeated the entire play. We are first introduced to evil in the form of the supernatural. The witches conduct evil for evils sake. It is not for personal gain. Although this supernatural evil cannot be committed by the witches directly, they do exert an influence on the characters, Macbeth in particular, through temptation. The witches are utterly wicked characters, although their dialogue sometimes seems almost comical, like a malevolent nursery rhyme perhaps; Double, double, toil and trouble. The presence of the witches alone is an embodiment of instinctive evil. There is a great deal of violent language present throughout the play. In Act 1, Scene 2, we observe a graphic discussion of battle by the Scottish King and his attendants; till he unseamed him from the nave to thchops and fixed his head upon our battlements. We will write a custom essay sample on Macbeth Evil Question or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Not only does this create a general atmosphere of evil, but it also assists in depicting he character of Macbeth. He is simply bound to be evil Judging by these references. Another strikingly evil character is presented to us in Act 1, Scene 5. Lady Macbeths language serves a similar purpose to that of the Kings attendants. It is especially horrifying coming from a woman. Being the main female character, we expect her to possess an air of femininity but what we perceive puts those assumptions to rest. It is not long before we realize that the power of her evil is in fact greater than that of her husbands. She fears Macbeth is too full of the milk of human kindness and herefore must guide him in order to go ahead with the horrific assassination of King Duncan. To emphasize her point, Lady Macbeth illustrates it with an action she would take on her own flesh and blood had she been stopped while being as determined to succeed as she is now; l would, while it was smiling at my face, have plucked my nipple from his boneless gums, and dashed the brains out. Although this is a metaphor, Shakespeare presented us with an immense perception of evil. Lady Macbeth is a truly magnificent representation of evil, as well as being one of Shakespeares most famous and frightening female characters. In creating an evil atmosphere, Shakespeare used the power of imagery; darkness playing a defining role. The use of dark colours is vital in creating a prevalent sense of evil, notably characters being referred to as Black Hecate along with Nights black angels. The frequent referrals to darkness and night-time heighten the atmosphere of evil. It is always at night-time that the witches show their faces and act as instruments of darkness. The audience automatically know that the witches are the embodiment of evil, temptation, and betrayal. Night-time also serves as the cover for Macbeths crimes as he pleads; Stars, hide your fires! Let not light see my black and deep desires. Lady Macbeth echoes this as she calls on the night for help; Come, thick night, and pall thee in the dunnest smoke of hell, that my keen knife see not the wound it makes. Throughout the play, it is only bright twice Duncans arrival at Inverness and when Macbeth is about to die. Both are events that antagonise Macbeth s evil plot. Shakespeare also reters to blood throughout the play which plays a key role in the morbid tone of Macbeth. The feature of blood assists in showcasing the malignant minds and evil deeds of the characters. After Lady Macbeth becomes a somnambulist, wracked with guilt over what she has done, we see her obsess about the metaphorical blood on her hands, leading to one of Shakespeares most famous lines; Out, damned spot! Out, out, I say. The multiple references of blood aid the powerful vision of evil. Pathetic fallacy plays a part in the continuous aspects of evil. The natural world mimics the real world when Macbeth ruthlessly murders Duncan; Theres husbandry in heaven, their candles are all out. This unnatural darkness symbolises the unnatural killing of a decent, well-liked King. Pathetic fallacies are used to reflect the events that happen during the night of Duncans murder. The unruliness of the night, the strange screams of death heard in the air, the feverous and shaking nature of the earth; these sinister personifications are all symbolic of the evil murder. Mastering the use of language, imagery and pathetic fallacy, Shakespeare presents us with a powerful vision of evil that is demonstrated from the beginning of Macbeth right up until the very end.

Professional Regulation and Criminal Liability an Example of the Topic Government and Law Essays by

Professional Regulation and Criminal Liability The nursing profession entails offering care to needy people in the society. It deals with offering health teaching, counseling and offering supportive and restorative care. Care offered could be physical or psychological. To be a registered nurse in the New York, one must be licensed. The process of registration involves filing an application with the department. One must have acquired the appropriate educational qualifications, which include a diploma or degree in professional nursing according to the commissioner&rsquos regulations. Need essay sample on "Professional Regulation and Criminal Liability" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed The recommended age is above 18 and one must be of good moral character as per the department standards. A fee of $115 is paid to the department and an examination is conducted for the initial license. $40 is for re-examination, $70 for initial license of those who are not examined in New York State. One must in addition to these qualifications have acquired or completed a course work training in the identification and reporting of child abuse. Licensure in nursing in New York also follows the same process as the registration. One needs to apply with the department, meet educational requirements, pass relevant examinations and be of good moral character. A fee is also paid attain the license. The credentialing process is also important in the nursing filed. The nursing profession is involved in the coordination and central of credentialing process of the professional nurses. A masters&rsquo degree is required to venture into advanced practice. Such professionals are supposed to perform their duties according to the ethical and legal standards set. Credentialing process for basic and advanced nursing practice is under the state board for nursing and the state education department. Credentialing for advanced practice professional is cohesive and includes formal education, clinical practice, continuing education and certification for validating competence. Credentialing is the process of obtaining, verifying and assessing qualification of nurses to provide patient care, treatment and services in a health care organization. In New York, the practice of a nursing practitioner requires supervision or referral from a licensed physician. Nurses are expected to renew their licenses every 3 years. According to the statutes, nurse practitioner can prescribe drug, immunizing agents and devices in accordance with the practice agreement and protocols. State board of nursing administers the licensure process. Certification of nurses in New York involves application after one has attained the relevant qualification skills as stated by as stated by the commissioner&rsquos regulations or the New York&rsquos education law. One is also required to pay a fee of $80 for the certification. The nursing regulations are found in the article 139 of the education law. The Rules of the Board of Regents part 29 gives details of unprofessional conduct. Unprofessional conduct in this field includes administering immunization, agents when the agents in question can be ineffective or unsafe. This entails administering expired agents when there is clear evidence that the expiry date has been reached. Agents that have not been stored according to the required standards should also not be used. It is unprofessional for nurses to abandon or neglect a patient in dire need of care without prior arrangement for the continuation of such care. Reasonable notice must be offered if one intends to abandon a health care so as not to jeopardize the quality of care to be offered. They should not willfully harass, abuse or intimidate patients physically or verbally. Proper record maintenance must be practiced and they should be accurate. Precision in using the title doctor should be used. One must indicate the field or profession a doctor has specialized in. Excessive tests or treatment should not be offered. Treatment facilities that are not warranted by a patient&rsquos condition should also not be used. Secret treatment, which is not pulged to the state board of professions, should not be used. Identity badge must be used and they should be legible and conspicuously displayed. They should indicate ones name and title of one&rsquos qualification. Nurses are also not expected to enter into agreements with pharmacist in favor of certain prescriptions. Nurses must indicate their names and date of prescriptions and those of the patients, the strength and quantity of the drugs or device offered as well as directions for use. Scientifically accepted infection prevention techniques must be used in cleaning and sterilization or disinfecting of devices, materials and work surfaces. Appropriate gloves should be worn to protect contamination. Gloves used should be discarded, new ones used in case they are torn and hands should be washed. Specimen of blood and body fluids should be placed in well-constructed containers. Common areas of punishable professional misconduct violations include the use of fraud or deceit in obtaining or attempting to obtain a nursing license, physical or psychological impairments leading to incompetence or negligence, Habitual use of or addiction to drugs or alcohol. Improper handling or alteration of patient records, performing tasks beyond the states nurse practice act, violating the patient&rsquos confidentiality, or their human rights and dignity. Offering care based on prejudice is also a case of professional misconduct in nursing. Other forms of professional misconduct involve aiding an unlicensed person to perform activities that require one to be licensed, being convicted of a crime, sexually or physically abusive. Nurses who practice without licenses are subject to criminal penalties. Such practice is considered as a felony in New York and is punishable by imprisonment or a fine. The New York State licensure board is responsible for enforcing prohibitions against unlicensed practice. There is no justification for such practice. Health centers or hospitals develop standards for credentialing nurses in their facilities. Credentialing decisions incorporate the practitioner&rsquos credentials, experience, and performance in accordance with medical staff by laws. National organizations like joint commission for the accreditation of health care organizations (JCAHO) and National Committee for Quality Assurance (NCQA) have set standards that such facilities should meet. Failure to meet the set standards such hospitals or health care centers lose their accreditation status. Cases of criminal liability in New York include the professional misconduct where nurses neglect patients in nursing homes. Hidden cameras were used to validate allegations of abuse and neglect. The New York Attorney Generals Office Fraud Control Unit investigators were able to identify employees who neglected a 70-year-old bedridden patient with dementia. They failed to maintain the patients cleanliness by constantly changing his bedpans and bedsores. In addition to that, they falsified his medical care records to indicate proper care. In the event of incompetence, negligence or other professional misconduct offered by a nurse, the patient should fill the complaint form and sent it to the New York State Education Department Office of Professionals. In the form the patient offers his or her details his or her name, address and telephone numbers. Information about the nurse that one is complaining about, the hospital and its address should also be indicated. The complaints should also be described in terms of what happened, when and where. The patient must be very specific. Other medical personnel&rsquos, administrators, specialists or even employees of the facility can also report a nurse&rsquos professional misconduct. Any one who reports the misconduct out of good will has immunity from liability. One must then certify that allegations made are true and complete. The patient or the person complaining can contact a knowledgeable person about professional misconduct before filling the complaint form. The staff members of the regional office where complain were made follow up the forwarded complaints. Cases of illegal or unlicensed practice are solved administratively or referred to the States Attorney General for criminal prosecution. Patients can follow up the progress of their complaints even when investigation is proceeding. This way, they can be informed if the complaint has been referred for further action. Although time needed for prosecution of cases may vary most investigations are completed within 9 months. The patient is informed of the status of their complaint and the final outcome. After accusations or allegations of professional misconduct are put forward on a nurse the state board of nursing conducts an investigation and an administrative review. The board&rsquos actions are mostly &lsquocomplaint driven&rsquo. The board uses discretionary powers and can issue decisions or ruling court proceedings and possible legal penalties result from the boards administrative review findings. The accused can appeal the board&rsquos decision in a court of law. Displinary actions taken if one is found guilty of professional misconduct include imposing a probation period, a fine or restricting the nurse&rsquos scope of practice. Other displinary actions include formal reprimand of the nurse, being place on probation, suspension or the board can refuse to renew the nurse&rsquos license or revoke the license in totality. Minor forms of misconduct may be solved through administrative warnings or advisory letters by the office of the professionals. (Follin S, 2004) The administrative review process begins when a person, health care facility or professional organization files a signed complaint against a nurse to the board. The board may also initiate the action. The board reviews the grievance to decide if the actions in question actually violate the states nurses practice act. A meeting with the accused nurse is requested and the allegations discussed. The nurse can also be asked to write statements of specific incidences that led to the complaint. The nurse can consult experienced nurse attorney before the meeting. Formal hearing is arranged if the board decides that the actions violated the states nurses act. Witnesses are called upon to give evidence. An impartial attorney may act as the hearing officer in the formal hearing alongside the judge. The board could also hear the case. (Follin S, 2004) If the board finds the nurse guilty, it takes appropriate displinary actions. In challenging the boards decision the court can re-examine the boards decision to establish if the board conducted the hearing properly or conduct a trial. An appeal can be sought with a higher court if one is not contended with the court&rsquos ruling. References: Office of professionals. 2006. Laws, Rules & Regulations Rules of the Board of Regents Part 29, Unprofessional Conduct. Retrieved on 4th February 2008 Online Lawyer Source. 2007. Nursing Home Neglect Being Caught by Hidden Video Cameras August 27th, 2007. Retrieved on 4th February 2008 Stacey Follin 2004. Nursing and Practice Nurse's Legal Handbook. Lippincott Williams.

Jurisprudence Essay †Ethics and Philosophy Paper

Jurisprudence Essay – Ethics and Philosophy Paper Free Online Research Papers Jurisprudence Essay Ethics and Philosophy Paper â€Å"Does utilitarianism provide an appropriate ethical basis for determining the existence and content of any duties we owe towards poor people living in developing countries and/or towards animals?† Introduction It is important in any argument to have boundaries, structure and guidelines. There is no one definition of utilitarianism. Provided below are particular extracts that endeavour to define the foundations of utilitarianism. Macquarie Dictionary ‘Concerning practical or material things.’1 Will Kymlicka ‘†¦ claims that the morally right act or policy is that which produces the greatest happiness for the members of society.’2 Kymlicka’s extract refers to society; this term can be related to any perceived injustice throughout the world. Utilitarianism is demonstrated by many modern day philosophers as the building block for animal rights fundamentalist and the ever expanding concept of globalisation. The obvious problem with a utilitarianism argument is that it is based on personal moral and ethical opinions and perceptions. Ethics is seen to be a ‘system of moral principles, by which human actions and proposals may be judged good or bad or right or wrong.’3 Ann Atkinson (Ed), Macquaire Dictionary (1991) 509. Will Kymlicka, ‘Utilitarianism’ in Contemporary Political Philosophy An Intro (2nd Ed, 2002) 10. Atkinson, above n 1, 164. Therefore, utilitarian theory does provide an ethical basis for determining the existence and content in any particular moral issues in modern society. The moral issues that will be expanded on throughout this essay are in relation to the duties that modern day societies owe to the poor people living in developing countries and towards man’s best friend, animals. Developing Countries The United Nations has defined all countries and nation-states as either developed or developing. There are many factors and considerations that contribute to the classification of a developing country. The most commonly highlighted characteristics of a developing country are as follows: high poverty and malnutrition, medical access and standard of medical care limited, high infant mortality rate, poor housing, low literacy levels, access to clean water limited, poor infrastructure, exploitation of natural resources, lack of military and police forces, and political/racial or religion based fighting. Countries that fall into the developing section seek foreign aid to help improve their lives from developed countries. Foreign aid does not only come from donations of money from either government or non-government organisations, aid can come in other shapes and disguises. Medical staff, teachers, and engineers are renowned for their participation in developing countries throughout the world. People who give up there own time or money to help those in need support the view that it is morally correct to assist those in a less fortunate position then oneself. These people see it as their personal duty on this Earth to help those who cannot help themselves due to location and situation. Is it ethically correct to help poor people in developing countries? It should be the opinion of all personnel that poor people in developing countries (or those less fortunate) do require help from those that are in a position to provide the appropriate aid, ‘†¦most of us unquestioningly support declarations proclaiming that all humans have certain rights, and that all human life is of equal worth.’4 To what extent and scope does this aid entail is the moral and ethical argument. A brick in the foreign aid building is the concept of globalisation. Some people are of the opinion that they must aid their family, friends, neighbours and countrymen before helping those from a different background or country. Singer states, ‘†¦citizens give their primary, and near exclusive, loyalty to their own nation-state rather than to the larger global community, and such a system has not led to a great enough will to meet the pressing needs of those living in extreme poverty.’5 Singer is of the belief that we should ‘consider ourselves as members of an imagined community of the world.’6 Globalisation is gaining momentum throughout many industries. Some examples of the expanding globalisation trends are evident in daily society, these are multi-national companies, international laws and treaties, global environmental issues, joint military objectives, the stock exchange and joint currency (Euro). Peter Singer, One World: the Ethics of Globalisation (2002) 168. Ibid 188. Ibid 187. Utilitarian foundations are made on the assumption that the globe needs to be a happy and more fulfilling place. The ethical basis of providing aid to developing countries is to assist the poor people to have a better quality of life, happiness and thus producing a better outcome for all mankind. Hence, society acknowledges that duties do exist for richer people to provide to those who are poor. These duties are not only based on personal ethics, but also can be forced. An example of forced aid is personnel income tax. The more one earns the more tax they pay. These tax dollars contribute to governments helping those less fortunate in national and global arenas. It is thus established that duties do exist for developed countries and their kinsmen to aid developing countries. To what content does this aid evolve? There are no written rules about how much a government or a single person must contribute to foreign aid. In the opinion of a utilitarian theorist, the more aid donated to a developing country, the better. Singer makes the point that a person should give all they can spare, ‘†¦advocate that everyone with income to spare, after meeting their family’s needs, should contribute a minimum of 0.4 per cent of their income to organisations working to help the world’s poorest people.’7 This continues with Soros calling the proposed US government foreign aid contributions, ‘a token gesture instead of something that could successfully impact most of the poor countries.’8 Singer and Soro are appalled at governments and everyday people for not carrying out the socially required content of their duty to the developing countries. Ibid 211. Ibid 213. The content becomes complicated when developed nations are paying for the mistakes and inabilities of another country to sort out their own problems. Global inequality is a natural occurrence, so why are we determined as a global concept to redistribute the wealth evenly. Some nations throughout the world, like Australia, have been blessed with a large proportion of the world’s natural resources. Natural resources are a naturally significant inequality between nations. Natural resources generally provide a viable and reasonably steady export income for the government. Rawls makes a pertinent argument that, ‘†¦ it unacceptable for a person who has worked hard and achieved wealth to be taxed in order to support someone who has led a more relaxed life and so is now, in terms of resources held, among the worst-off members of society?.’9 On reflection of Australia’s recent colonial history, one might avoid accepting such strong opinions against the duties t owards developing countries. As Australia once was a developing country only 150 years ago, without the help of her colonial parent the ‘United Kingdom’, Australia would still be developing today. The United Kingdom originally saw Australia only for exploitation, not for it to become a real society within itself. Does every developing country require a parent to look after it and help it to become more developed? Singer describes certain governments only providing foreign aid where it will benefit their nation, by advancing their own strategic and cultural interests.10 This type of aid is how Australia become developed. The aid by these governments is not donated without ulterior motives, though it is still benefiting the global community. Ibid 195. Ibid 209. The theory of utilitarianism provides an ethical basis for outlining the global duties in the context of developing countries. The theory defines the basis of duties that must exist in a stable, happy and equal global community. The ethical debate over the content of duties required by developed countries towards developing countries will be harder to resolve, as all individuals share a different opinion on the amount of aid appropriate to be given from one’s own wealth. Animal Rights The issue of animal rights stems from the precedence that all living things on Earth have a right to live be happy and not exploited for human gratification. ‘Men and women are similar beings and should have similar rights, while humans and nonhumans are different and should not have equal rights’.11 Singer uses utilitarianism as an ethical basis for comparing the arguments of animal rights (speciesism) with women’s rights (feminism), though the phrase ‘rights’ should be changed to ‘equal consideration’. ‘Equal consideration for different beings may lead to different treatment and different rights.’12 Singer suggests that all living organisms on Earth should be given equal consideration when making decisions that may affect that organism. He also continues to explain that, ‘the interests of every being affected by an action are to be taken into account and given the same weight as the like interests of any other being.à ¢â‚¬â„¢13 The reason why this argument exists in society today is due to the present exploitation of many animals on Earth i.e. animals for human consumption (livestock, seafood); animals for human entertainment and recreation Peter Singer, Animal Liberation (2nd Ed, 1991) 2. Ibid. Ibid 5. (caged animals, domestic pets); laboratory test subjects; animals for clothing and animals for the production of other household products. This list does not include the animals dislodged from their ecosystems due to logging, tourism and housing developments. Therefore, ‘the taking into account of the interests of the being, whatever those interests may be – must, according to the principle of equality, be extended to all beings, black or white, masculine or feminine, human or nonhuman.’14 Singer’s argument is that all organisms on Earth should be given equal consideration when assessing a future action. Due to numerous animals each year suffering due to humans, there exists a moral need to grasp the duties expected of humans towards other organisms on Earth. ‘If possessing a higher degree of intelligence does not entitle one human to use another for his or her own ends, how can it entitle humans to exploit nonhumans for the same purpose.’15 Humans do not use each other for food, clothing, laboratory test subjects or household products so why should we not give equal consideration to animals. The content of the duties required by humans towards animals is hard to define, as humans do need to exploit animals in some context. Society’s current acceptable exploitation of animals includes but is not limited to: organic and natural farming of livestock (cattle, sheep, chickens, fish, and crustaceans) for food; clothing and household items; limited laboratory test animals for essential experiments16; and domestic pets. Animals are a great source of food and natural fibre for clothing and materials; it would be near impossible to completely substitute all products they can Ibid. Ibid 6. Peter Singer, ‘Tools for Research’, in Writings on an Ethical Life (2000) 54. provide with synthetic alternatives. There is a need for some animals to be exploited by humans, though all animals, especially those living in their natural ecosystems are to be given equal consideration when taking action that could affect the area and its inhabitants. Kymlicka’s explanation of utilitarianism17 suggests animals belong to their own society. They have an inherit right to be happy and be given equal consideration as appropriate, in comparison to other societies within the world. Conclusion If a person has morals which reflect equality for all organisms on earth, utilitarianism can be the basis of any ethical debate. This was proven within this essay by utilitarian theory being relevant and adaptive to both contrasting ethical debates. If there are society accepted morals involved in any debate, the theory of utilitarian could be used to mould a possible resolution or response. Utilitarianism proves that there is a distinct ethical requirement for developed countries to conduct duties towards developing countries. The extent of these duties is a matter of opinion. This opinion will evidently change as the phenomenon of globalisation increases. Eventually, developing countries could become developed countries, if enough aid was given by the current wealthy countries. 17. Kymlicka, above n 2, 10. The duty towards animals is to make sure as humans we give all organisms due and equal consideration. Hence, complete happiness for every animal will be quite unachievable in present society. This is due to humans need to exploit animals for consumption. It is unlikely that a substitute will replace this need for consumption. In summary, there are limitations to utilitarianism for both debates: a person of reasonable wealth should not be expected to part with their money when they have worked for it; and most humans consume meat as part of their daily diet, therefore, some exploitation of animals needs to continue. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ann Atkinson (Ed), Macquarie Dictionary (1991). Ronald Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously (1977). Will Kymlicka, ‘Utilitarianism’ in Contemporary Political Philosophy An Intro (2nd Ed, 2002). Peter Singer, Animal Liberation (2nd Ed, 1991). Peter Singer, One World: the Ethics of Globalisation (2002). Peter Singer, ‘Tools of Research’ in Writings on an Ethical Life (2000). Research Papers on Jurisprudence Essay - Ethics and Philosophy PaperMoral and Ethical Issues in Hiring New EmployeesRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andPETSTEL analysis of IndiaInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesDefinition of Export QuotasPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyBringing Democracy to AfricaGenetic EngineeringAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeComparison: Letter from Birmingham and Crito

The First North Korean Nuclear Crisis during 1993-4 Essay

The First North Korean Nuclear Crisis during 1993-4 - Essay Example gh it seems difficult to oppose that view, the â€Å"crisis† was resolved in 1994 when North Korea obeyed the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). The situation had been considered as a nuclear crisis when the North Korea withdrew from the NPR on March 12, 1993. This became the onset of the North Korean nuclear crisis which became a major concern in the international arena. Different countries participated to be able to resolve the problem. These countries include China Japan, Russia and the members of the IAEA which held important roles in the process of settling the nuclear crisis. The most important and most affected countries though with the most significant participation in the issue are the South Korea and the United States. For South Korea, the danger had been the fact that the relationship with the Northern region had been volatile since the civil war. In addition, South Korea is facing the North’s dangerous play over the demilitarized zone and the United States, a superpower which deployed about 37,000 American military in the South and played a leadership in international community. For that matter, South Korea and United States can be considered as the major role players in the resolution of the North Korean nuclear crisis. Many of existing literature on the North Korean nuclear problem tend to focus on political aspects of the program and strategy to solve the issue. The political perspective is necessary to analyze the stake of North Korean nuclear program. Although this is the case, it is not sufficient to understand the full scope of a more complicated picture, especially the 1994 crisis which can be considered to be affected by the complicated interaction of history, politics, military and economy. Some published works have been able to reveal more thoroughly such as â€Å"Going Critical† written by insiders during the crisis. The authoritative account of the crisis recounts a detail about how